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Copper is one of the oldest metals used and has been one of the important materials in the development of civilization. Copper occasionally occurs pure and is found in many minerals such as cuprite, malachite, bornite, chalcopyrite, covellite and azurite. The most important types of copper ores are the sulfides, oxides and carbonates.

Industrial symbiosis is part of a new field called industrial ecology. Industrial ecology is principally concerned with the flow of materials and energy through systems at different scales, from products to factories and up to national and global levels.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the most important greenhouse gas produced by human activities, primarily through the combustion of fossil fuels. Its concentration in the Earth’s atmosphere has risen by more than 30% since the Industrial Revolution.

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The five lakes, Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario, known as the Great Lakes contain about one fifth of the world’s total fresh water supply. While Lake Michigan is entirely within the United States, the other four lakes share the international border between U.S. and Canada.

Energy transitions are the changes from one state to another in the energy system; a given state of the system is defined by specific patterns of both energy supply and demand quantities and qualities.

The Russian geologist Vasily Dokuchaev (1846–1903), considered the father of soil science, was the first to identify and discuss, at the end of 19th century, what we know today as the “factors of soil formation”.